Getting our machines set up for C++ development, and introducing the fundamental building blocks of programming - variables.

Getting our computer set up so we can create and build C++ programs. Then, creating our very first application

Setting up a C++ Development Environment

An introduction to the building blocks of our software - objects, and the variables that can be associated with them.

Objects, Variables and Types

Creating variables to store and update the data that describes our objects.  We also introduce comments, allowing us to describe our code in plain language.

Creating Variables

An introduction to the different types of numbers in C++, and how we can do basic math operations on them.

Numbers

An overview of the fundamental true or false data type, how we can create them, and how we can combine them.

Booleans - `true` and `false` values

Explore how C++ programs store and manage numbers in computer memory, including integer and floating-point types, memory allocation, and overflow handling.

Types and Literals

Creating a tiny program using numbers and booleans, then adding some breakpoints so we can step through our code in a debugger.

Introduction to Debugging

Types and Variables

Discover how we can package our code into reusable functions that we can easily call.  Then, learn how we can use conditionals and loops to control the flow of our program.

An introduction to functions - reusable blocks of code that we can use to break our application into smaller pieces.

Creating and Calling Functions

An introduction to how our function calls create a call stack, and how we can navigate it in a debugger.

The Call Stack and Debugging Functions

Use booleans and if statements to make our functions and programs more dynamic, choosing different execution paths.

Conditional Logic

Learn an alternative way to write conditionals, which is often used when we want to take different paths based on a specific value

Switch Statements

Allow our functions to communicate with their caller by returning values when they complete

Function `return` Statements

Going into more depth on what is happening when a variable is used as a different type

Implicit Conversions and Narrowing Casts

Making our functions more useful and dynamic by providing them with additional values to use in their execution

Function Arguments and Parameters

Learn more about how and when we can access variables, by understanding the importance of the scope in which they exist.

Scope

Understand what function prototypes are, and learn how we can use them to let us order our code any way we want.

Forward Declarations

Learn how we can use loops to iterate over a block of code, executing it as many times as needed.

Loops

Learn how we can use the modulus operator to get the remainder of integer division, and some common use cases.

The Modulus Operator (`%`)

Put everything we've learned in this chapter to the test by creating a C++ version of the Fizz Buzz game.

Fizz Buzz

Learn how the `&&` and `||` operators are optimized with short-circuit evaluation, only evaluating expressions when necessary

Short-circuit Evaluation

Functions, Conditionals and Loops

Classes and structs are the fundamental feature of object oriented programming.  In this chapter, we will see how we can set them up, and how we can use them to create the custom types our program needs.

Learn how to define, instantiate, and utilize classes, understanding how they form the backbone of object-oriented programming.

Abstraction and Classes

A guide to encapsulation, class invariants, and controlling data access with `public` and `private` specifiers.

Encapsulation and Access Specifiers

Learn about special functions we can add to our classes, control how our objects get created and destroyed.

Constructors and Destructors

Discover the role of structs, how they differ from classes, and how to initialize them without requiring a constructor.

Structs and Aggregate Initialization

This lesson introduces operator overloading, a fundamental concept to create more intuitive and readable code by customizing operators for user-defined types

Operator Overloading

This lesson introduces Structured Binding, a handy tool for unpacking simple data structures

Structured Binding

Classes and Structs

See how we can use inheritance to organise our classes into a hierarchy, unlocking a massive range of possibilities for building more complex software

In this lesson, we explore C++ inheritance, guiding you through creating and managing class hierarchies to streamline your code

Inheritance

Learn about `protected` class members in C++, including how and when to use them in your code, especially in the context of inheritance and class design

Protected Class Members

This lesson introduces Member Initializer Lists, focusing on their advantages for performance and readability, and how to use them effectively

Member Initializer Lists

This lesson provides an in-depth exploration of using inherited methods and variables in C++, covering constructor calls, variable modification, and function shadowing

Working with Inherited Members

An introduction to working with memory, and how we represent memory locations using references and pointers

This lesson introduces references, explaining how they work, their benefits, and their role in performance and data manipulation

References

This lesson provides a thorough introduction to pointers in C++, covering their definition, usage, and the distinction between pointers and references

Pointers

Learn about the `this` pointer in C++ programming, focusing on its application in identifying callers, chaining functions, and overloading operators.

The `this` Pointer

Learn about an important consideration when returning pointers and references from functions

Dangling Pointers and References

Memory, References and Pointers

An introduction to polymorphism - the key tool that let us build more complex programs whilst keeping our code simple.

This lesson provides an in-depth look at function overloading in C++, covering its importance, implementation, and best practices

Function Overloading

Explore the concept of static casting in C++, including examples and best practices for converting data types at compile time

Static Casting

This lesson provides an introduction to virtual functions and overrides, focusing on their role in enabling runtime polymorphism

Virtual Functions and Overrides

Get to grips with downcasting in C++, including static and dynamic casts. This lesson provides clear explanations and practical examples for beginners

Downcasting

Polymorphism

Go deeper on what is happening when we build our software.  Learn how we can use the preprocessor to automatically modify our source code before it is compiled, and how the linker connects our program together.

Explore the essential concepts of C++ preprocessing, from understanding directives to implementing macros

Preprocessor Definitions

Discover how the `#include` directive helps us include library features and split our project across multiple files.

The `#include` Directive

Explore how header files and linkers streamline C++ programming, learning to organize and link our code effectively

Header Files

The Preprocessor and the Linker

Discover additional methods and techniques to keep our data and code organised.

Learn the essentials of using namespaces to organize your code and handle large projects with ease

Namespaces

Learn about Enums and how they offer an efficient way to handle predefined values in your code

Enums

This lesson introduces the `using` keyword in C++, focusing on namespaces, enums, and type aliasing

The `using` Keyword

Namespaces and Enums

Learn how to store collections of objects, and take control of how memory is managed

Explore the fundamentals of dynamic arrays with an introduction to `std::vector`

Dynamic Arrays using `std::vector`

Learn how to manage dynamic memory using unique pointers and the concept of memory ownership

Memory Ownership and Smart Pointers

Explore advanced techniques for managing object copying and resource allocation

Copy Constructors and Operators

Learn the techniques and pitfalls of manual memory management in C++

Managing Memory Manually

Arrays and Dynamic Memory

Techniques to simplify our code, making it easier to understand and maintain

This lesson covers how we can ask the compiler to infer what types we are using through the `auto` keyword

Automatic Type Deduction using `auto`

Learn the intricacies of using `const` and how to apply it in different contexts

Constants and `const`-Correctness

This lesson provides an overview of effective commenting strategies, including Javadoc style commenting for automated documentation

Effective Comments and Javadoc

This lesson introduces the concept of Style Guides and ClangFormat, focusing on how to achieve consistency in our code

Style Guides and Automatic Code Formatting

An introduction to static analysis tools, and how they can help beginners learn faster and improve code quality

Static Analysis

Explore the fundamentals of attributes, including `[[nodiscard]]`, `[[likely]]`, and `[[deprecated]]`

Attributes

Clean Code

A collection of lessons covering a variety of topics worth learning as a beginner

This lesson covers the basics of using randomness, with practical applications

Random Number Generation

Learn the basics of the chrono library and discover how to effectively manage durations, clocks, and time points

Dates, Times and Durations

A detailed guide to string formatting using C++20's `std::format()`, and C++23's `std::print()`

String Interpolation

Learn how to overload the `<<` operator, so our custom types can stream information directly to the console using `std::cout`

Overloading the `<<` Operator

This lesson introduces system calls, and how to use them to clear the terminal

System Calls and Terminal Management

This lesson introduces the fundamentals of capturing user input, using `std::cin` and `std::getline()`

User Input in the Terminal

Unravel the fundamentals of bitwise operators and bit flags in this practical lesson

Bitwise Operators and Bit Flags

Odds and Ends

This course is designed for beginners. We'll take you from the fundamentals and lay a solid foundation for creating real-world programs and learning more advanced concepts.

Become a software engineer with C++.  Starting from the basics, we guide you step by step along the way

This course teaches the fundamentals of C++ while instilling habits used by real-world developers. You'll gain practical experience with concepts that are the foundation of all modern programming.

No previous programming experience is needed - we start from the basics.

Start your Journey

We explain every line of code we're using, so you understand exactly what is happening.

Understand Every Line of Code

Everything we create is organised and implemented using modern, professional practices.

Use Professional Best Practices

We don't just explain what we're doing, but also why. This builds transferrable skills, so you can take what you've learnt and apply them to your own projects.

Focus on Transferrable Skills

No paywalls, no ads - the course is completely free with unlimited access

Free and Unrestricted Access

We break complex concepts into manageable steps, making even advanced topics feel approachable.

Step-by-Step Learning

What You'll Learn

Comprehensive course covering advanced concepts, and how to use them on large-scale projects.

Professional C++

If you're already familiar with the basics of C++ and object oriented programming, you may want to skip to the advanced course.  It starts with a quick summary of everything we cover here.

Already Familiar with Programming?

Intro to C++ Programming

<Excerpt>


In a previous lesson, we saw how we could group code into reusable blocks called functions, and how we could then call our functions to execute that code as many times as needed.


Our functions did the same thing every time we called them, but that does not have to be the case. We can apply **conditional logic** to make our functions (and our program in general) take different paths.


Conditional logic is heavily intertwined with the concept of booleans that we saw earlier. With conditionals, we can tell our functions to perform different actions based on the value of boolean expressions.


<LessonPromo url="intro-to-programming/booleans" title="Booleans - `true` and `false` values" description="An overview of the fundamental true or false data type, how we can create them, and how we can combine them." />


These techniques are the foundations of making our programs more dynamic, allowing them to change and react to situations such as user input.  Let's get started!


</Excerpt>


<Ad />


## Using `if` Statements


An `if` statement is the most basic form of conditional logic. It is a structure that lets us say "if this boolean is true, run a block of code".


The structure of an `if` statement looks like this:


```c++
int Health { 50 };
bool isDead { true };

if (isDead) Health = 0;//<h>
```


After running the above code, `Health` will have a value of `0`.


We can see this has three components:

- the `if` keyword
- an expression inside `(` and `)` that will result in a boolean
- a statement that will be executed if the boolean is `true`

The content inside the brackets can be anything that results in a boolean.  For example, it could be a variable containing a boolean, a maths comparison such as `Health < 50`, or any other technique we're familiar with.


<Quiz title="Using `if` Statements">


<Question>


How can we set the `isDead` variable to `true` if `Health` is less than or equal to `0`?


<Answer isCorrect>
`if (Health <= 0) isDead = true;`
<Feedback>


Excellent work! You've correctly implemented the `if` statement in C++. The condition `Health <= 0` is accurately placed within the parentheses, and the action `isDead = true` is appropriately executed when the condition is true.


</Feedback>


</Answer>


<Answer>


`isDead = true if Health <= 0;`


<Feedback>


This syntax isn't quite right for C++. The `if` statement should come first, followed by the condition and then the action. Review the structure of a basic `if` statement.


</Feedback>


</Answer>


<Answer>


`if (isDead = true) Health <= 0;`


<Feedback>


In this line, you're assigning a value rather than comparing it. Remember, comparison in C++ uses '=='. Also, the structure of your `if` statement needs adjustment. The action should come after the condition.


</Feedback>


</Answer>


</Question>


</Quiz>


Here are some more examples:


```c++
bool isDead { false };
int Level { 5 };
float Health { 200 };

if (isDead) Health = 0;
if (!isDead) PlayIdleAnimation();
if (Level == 1) StartTutorial();
if (Level >= 10 && !isDead) StartQuest();
```


If we want multiple statements to be executed based on the value of a boolean, we can introduce braces - `{` and `}` - to our `if` statement:


```c++
if (isDead) {//<h>
  Health = 0;
  DropLoot();
  PlayDeathAnimation();
  AwardExperience();
}//<h>
```


<Ad />


## Using `if` Statements in Functions


`if` statements will be located within the bodies of our functions. Let's see what that looks like by improving our `TakeDamage()` function with an `if` statement.


This will cause the monster's `isDead` boolean to be updated if the damage reduces its `Health` to `0` or below:


```c++
void TakeDamage() {
  Health -= 50;
  if (Health <= 0) isDead = true;//<h>
}
```


We can also add a line to our conditional block that ensures this function cannot ever leave our `Health` at a negative value:


```c++
void TakeDamage() {
  Health -= 50;
  if (Health <= 0) {
    isDead = true;
    Health = 0;
  };
}
```


Note the spacing of our code here - we now have multiple levels of indenting from the left. We indent once to indicate we're inside the body of the function, and indent a second level to indicate we're inside the `if` statement within our function.


Remember, the spacing does not matter to the compiler - we use it to make our code easier to read. How we space our code is just a personal preference.  All of the following are equivalent examples:


```c++
if (Health <= 0)
{
  isDead = true;
  Health = 0;
}
```


```c++
if (Health <= 0) {
  isDead = true; Health = 0;
}
```


```c++
if (Health <= 0) { isDead = true; Health = 0; }
```


## Using `else` Statements


We can combine an `if` statement with an `else` statement, to create more complicated conditional logic. In the below example, our code will **either** call the `DropLoot()` function or the `Attack()` function.  The path it takes depends on the value of the `isDead` boolean.


```c++
if (isDead) {
  DropLoot();
} else {
  Attack();
}
```


## The Ternary Operator


Where both blocks of the `if` and `else` are simple statements, like in the example above, there is a more concise way of creating our conditional.


We can do this using the **ternary operator**. The code below is equivalent to the previous example:


```c++
isDead ? DropLoot() : Attack();
```


In this structure, we have our boolean expression, followed by a `?`. Then, we place the statement to be executed if the boolean is `true`, followed by the statement to be executed if it is `false`, with a `:` between them.


Aside from requiring fewer keystrokes, they can also be used in ways where `if` statements cannot.  This allows us to fundamentally change how we write blocks of code, as demonstrated below:


<Quiz title="Ternary Assignment">


<Question>


We want the initial value of our `Health` variable to depend on the `isDead` boolean.  We've implemented this as follows:


```c++
int Health{100};
if (isDead) {
  Health = 0;
}
```


How can we replace this with a ternary?


<Answer>
`int Health { isDead : 0 : 100 };`
<Feedback>


The syntax of the ternary operator in C++ follows a specific structure: condition, followed by '?', then the true case, ':' and the false case. Check the order and symbols used in your statement


</Feedback>


</Answer>


<Answer>


`int Health { isDead ? 0 ? 100 };`


<Feedback>


Close, but the syntax isn't quite right. The ternary operator should include a condition, followed by '?', the true scenario, ':', and then the false scenario. Review the proper use of the ternary operator.


</Feedback>


</Answer>


<Answer isCorrect>


`int Health { isDead ? 0 : 100 };`


<Feedback>


Great job! This is the correct use of the ternary operator in C++. You've accurately used the condition `isDead`, followed by a `?`, then the outcome if the condition is true (**`0`**), followed by `:`, and the outcome if the condition is false (`100`).


</Feedback>


</Answer>


</Question>


</Quiz>


<Ad />


## Using `else if` Statements


The `if` and `else` structure only lets us account for two possible states.  However, we can accommodate as many as we need by placing any number of `else if` statements after our first `if`. For example:


```c++
if (Health <= 0) {
  isDead = true;
  DropLoot();
} else if (Health <= 50) {
  RunAway();
} else if (Health <= 100) {
  Heal();
} else {
  Attack();
}
```


The final statement does not always need to be an `else`.  It is acceptable to end with an `else if`.  In the below example, our code will not do anything if `Health` is greater than `100`:


```c++
if (Health <= 0) {
  isDead = true;
  DropLoot();
} else if (Health <= 50) {
  RunAway();
} else if (Health <= 100) {
  Heal();
}
```


As a final example, let's see something more complex. We can nest conditional statements - including ternaries - within other conditional statements.


```c++
if (Health <= 0) {
  isDead = true;
  if (hasLoot) {
    DropLoot();
  }
  if (shouldAwardExperience) {
    AwardExperience();
  }
} else if (Health <= 50) {
  canHeal ? CastHealingSpell() : RunAway();
} else if (isHostile) {
  canSeePlayer ? Attack() : PatrolArea();
}
```


<Aside>


### Nested Terneries


We've seen how a ternary allows us to check a boolean condition and then, depending on whether the condition was `true` or `false`, execute one of two expressions.


It's worth noting that either one of those expressions can be another ternary statement.  This allows us to effectively nest terneries within terneries.


For example, consider the following block of code:


```c++
if (Health <= 0) {
  DropLoot();
} else if (Health <= 50) {
  RunAway();
} else {
  Attack();
}
```


It could be implemented using ternary statements like this:


```c++
Health <= 0
  ? DropLoot()
  : Health <= 50
  ? RunAway()
  : Attack()
```


This form is fairly contentious - many style guides suggest terneries should never be nested, but we should be aware that it is a possibility.


</Aside>


## Summary


Great job on completing this lesson on Conditional Logic! Here's a quick recap of what we've covered:

- Explored how to make decisions in code using boolean expressions.
- Learned the basics of `if`, `else if`, and `else` statements.
- Practiced using conditional statements to alter the flow of a program.
- Dived into ternary operators for concise conditional expressions.
- Explored nested conditional statements for more complex decision-making.

<Preview>


### Switch Statements


Up next, we'll introduce **Switch Statements**. You'll learn:

- How to simplify complex conditional logic with switch statements.
- The benefits and use cases of switch statements compared to if-else chains.
- Practical examples to solidify your understanding.

</Preview>

3D art showing a branching path in a forest

Conditional statements in C++

Conditional (computer programming)

Ternary conditional operator

{CPP}Master if-else statements and the ternary operator to create decision-based programs

Conditional Logic

Understanding the Basics

Practical Applications

Common Mistakes

Next Steps

Additional Resources

Assessment Preparation

Intro to C++ Programming