Getting our machines set up for C++ development, and introducing the fundamental building blocks of programming - variables.

Getting our computer set up so we can create and build C++ programs. Then, creating our very first application

Setting up a C++ Development Environment

An introduction to the building blocks of our software - objects, and the variables that can be associated with them.

Objects, Variables and Types

Creating variables to store and update the data that describes our objects.  We also introduce comments, allowing us to describe our code in plain language.

Creating Variables

An introduction to the different types of numbers in C++, and how we can do basic math operations on them.

Numbers

An overview of the fundamental true or false data type, how we can create them, and how we can combine them.

Booleans - `true` and `false` values

Explore how C++ programs store and manage numbers in computer memory, including integer and floating-point types, memory allocation, and overflow handling.

Types and Literals

Creating a tiny program using numbers and booleans, then adding some breakpoints so we can step through our code in a debugger.

Introduction to Debugging

Types and Variables

Discover how we can package our code into reusable functions that we can easily call.  Then, learn how we can use conditionals and loops to control the flow of our program.

An introduction to functions - reusable blocks of code that we can use to break our application into smaller pieces.

Creating and Calling Functions

An introduction to how our function calls create a call stack, and how we can navigate it in a debugger.

The Call Stack and Debugging Functions

Use booleans and if statements to make our functions and programs more dynamic, choosing different execution paths.

Conditional Logic

Learn an alternative way to write conditionals, which is often used when we want to take different paths based on a specific value

Switch Statements

Allow our functions to communicate with their caller by returning values when they complete

Function `return` Statements

Going into more depth on what is happening when a variable is used as a different type

Implicit Conversions and Narrowing Casts

Making our functions more useful and dynamic by providing them with additional values to use in their execution

Function Arguments and Parameters

Learn more about how and when we can access variables, by understanding the importance of the scope in which they exist.

Scope

Understand what function prototypes are, and learn how we can use them to let us order our code any way we want.

Forward Declarations

Learn how we can use loops to iterate over a block of code, executing it as many times as needed.

Loops

Learn how we can use the modulus operator to get the remainder of integer division, and some common use cases.

The Modulus Operator (`%`)

Put everything we've learned in this chapter to the test by creating a C++ version of the Fizz Buzz game.

Fizz Buzz

Learn how the `&&` and `||` operators are optimized with short-circuit evaluation, only evaluating expressions when necessary

Short-circuit Evaluation

Functions, Conditionals and Loops

Classes and structs are the fundamental feature of object oriented programming.  In this chapter, we will see how we can set them up, and how we can use them to create the custom types our program needs.

Learn how to define, instantiate, and utilize classes, understanding how they form the backbone of object-oriented programming.

Abstraction and Classes

A guide to encapsulation, class invariants, and controlling data access with `public` and `private` specifiers.

Encapsulation and Access Specifiers

Learn about special functions we can add to our classes, control how our objects get created and destroyed.

Constructors and Destructors

Discover the role of structs, how they differ from classes, and how to initialize them without requiring a constructor.

Structs and Aggregate Initialization

This lesson introduces operator overloading, a fundamental concept to create more intuitive and readable code by customizing operators for user-defined types

Operator Overloading

This lesson introduces Structured Binding, a handy tool for unpacking simple data structures

Structured Binding

Classes and Structs

See how we can use inheritance to organise our classes into a hierarchy, unlocking a massive range of possibilities for building more complex software

In this lesson, we explore C++ inheritance, guiding you through creating and managing class hierarchies to streamline your code

Inheritance

Learn about `protected` class members in C++, including how and when to use them in your code, especially in the context of inheritance and class design

Protected Class Members

This lesson introduces Member Initializer Lists, focusing on their advantages for performance and readability, and how to use them effectively

Member Initializer Lists

This lesson provides an in-depth exploration of using inherited methods and variables in C++, covering constructor calls, variable modification, and function shadowing

Working with Inherited Members

An introduction to working with memory, and how we represent memory locations using references and pointers

This lesson introduces references, explaining how they work, their benefits, and their role in performance and data manipulation

References

This lesson provides a thorough introduction to pointers in C++, covering their definition, usage, and the distinction between pointers and references

Pointers

Learn about the `this` pointer in C++ programming, focusing on its application in identifying callers, chaining functions, and overloading operators.

The `this` Pointer

Learn about an important consideration when returning pointers and references from functions

Dangling Pointers and References

Memory, References and Pointers

An introduction to polymorphism - the key tool that let us build more complex programs whilst keeping our code simple.

This lesson provides an in-depth look at function overloading in C++, covering its importance, implementation, and best practices

Function Overloading

Explore the concept of static casting in C++, including examples and best practices for converting data types at compile time

Static Casting

This lesson provides an introduction to virtual functions and overrides, focusing on their role in enabling runtime polymorphism

Virtual Functions and Overrides

Get to grips with downcasting in C++, including static and dynamic casts. This lesson provides clear explanations and practical examples for beginners

Downcasting

Polymorphism

Go deeper on what is happening when we build our software.  Learn how we can use the preprocessor to automatically modify our source code before it is compiled, and how the linker connects our program together.

Explore the essential concepts of C++ preprocessing, from understanding directives to implementing macros

Preprocessor Definitions

Discover how the `#include` directive helps us include library features and split our project across multiple files.

The `#include` Directive

Explore how header files and linkers streamline C++ programming, learning to organize and link our code effectively

Header Files

The Preprocessor and the Linker

Discover additional methods and techniques to keep our data and code organised.

Learn the essentials of using namespaces to organize your code and handle large projects with ease

Namespaces

Learn about Enums and how they offer an efficient way to handle predefined values in your code

Enums

This lesson introduces the `using` keyword in C++, focusing on namespaces, enums, and type aliasing

The `using` Keyword

Namespaces and Enums

Learn how to store collections of objects, and take control of how memory is managed

Explore the fundamentals of dynamic arrays with an introduction to `std::vector`

Dynamic Arrays using `std::vector`

Learn how to manage dynamic memory using unique pointers and the concept of memory ownership

Memory Ownership and Smart Pointers

Explore advanced techniques for managing object copying and resource allocation

Copy Constructors and Operators

Learn the techniques and pitfalls of manual memory management in C++

Managing Memory Manually

Arrays and Dynamic Memory

Techniques to simplify our code, making it easier to understand and maintain

This lesson covers how we can ask the compiler to infer what types we are using through the `auto` keyword

Automatic Type Deduction using `auto`

Learn the intricacies of using `const` and how to apply it in different contexts

Constants and `const`-Correctness

This lesson provides an overview of effective commenting strategies, including Javadoc style commenting for automated documentation

Effective Comments and Javadoc

This lesson introduces the concept of Style Guides and ClangFormat, focusing on how to achieve consistency in our code

Style Guides and Automatic Code Formatting

An introduction to static analysis tools, and how they can help beginners learn faster and improve code quality

Static Analysis

Explore the fundamentals of attributes, including `[[nodiscard]]`, `[[likely]]`, and `[[deprecated]]`

Attributes

Clean Code

A collection of lessons covering a variety of topics worth learning as a beginner

This lesson covers the basics of using randomness, with practical applications

Random Number Generation

Learn the basics of the chrono library and discover how to effectively manage durations, clocks, and time points

Dates, Times and Durations

A detailed guide to string formatting using C++20's `std::format()`, and C++23's `std::print()`

String Interpolation

Learn how to overload the `<<` operator, so our custom types can stream information directly to the console using `std::cout`

Overloading the `<<` Operator

This lesson introduces system calls, and how to use them to clear the terminal

System Calls and Terminal Management

This lesson introduces the fundamentals of capturing user input, using `std::cin` and `std::getline()`

User Input in the Terminal

Unravel the fundamentals of bitwise operators and bit flags in this practical lesson

Bitwise Operators and Bit Flags

Odds and Ends

This course is designed for beginners. We'll take you from the fundamentals and lay a solid foundation for creating real-world programs and learning more advanced concepts.

Become a software engineer with C++.  Starting from the basics, we guide you step by step along the way

This course teaches the fundamentals of C++ while instilling habits used by real-world developers. You'll gain practical experience with concepts that are the foundation of all modern programming.

No previous programming experience is needed - we start from the basics.

Start your Journey

We explain every line of code we're using, so you understand exactly what is happening.

Understand Every Line of Code

Everything we create is organised and implemented using modern, professional practices.

Use Professional Best Practices

We don't just explain what we're doing, but also why. This builds transferrable skills, so you can take what you've learnt and apply them to your own projects.

Focus on Transferrable Skills

No paywalls, no ads - the course is completely free with unlimited access

Free and Unrestricted Access

We break complex concepts into manageable steps, making even advanced topics feel approachable.

Step-by-Step Learning

What You'll Learn

Comprehensive course covering advanced concepts, and how to use them on large-scale projects.

Professional C++

If you're already familiar with the basics of C++ and object oriented programming, you may want to skip to the advanced course.  It starts with a quick summary of everything we cover here.

Already Familiar with Programming?

Intro to C++ Programming

<Excerpt>


In our lessons on inheritance and polymorphism, we talked about how an object of a specific type also has the type of every ancestor class.  Below, our `Bonker` object is both a `Character` and a `Goblin`:


```c++
class Character {};

class Goblin : public Character {};

int main(){
  Goblin Bonker;
}
```


We see an example of this below, where our `Goblin` is passed to the `Act()` function in the form of a `Character*`.


We're then able to call the inherited `GetName()` function:


</Excerpt>


```c++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Character {
public:
  Character(string Name) : mName{Name}{}
  string GetName(){ return mName; }

private:
  string mName;
};

class Goblin : public Character {
public:
  Goblin(string Name) : Character{Name}{}

  void Enrage(){
    cout << "Getting Angry!";
    Damage += 5;
  }

private:
  int Damage{10};
};

void Act(Character* Enemy){
  cout << Enemy->GetName() << " Acting\n";//<h>
}

int main(){
  Goblin Bonker{"Bonker"};
  Act(&Bonker);
}
```


```c++
//<o>
Bonker Acting
```


## Why do we need Downcasting?


Above, we saw that if we have a `Character*` pointer we can call `Character` functions, as expected.  But what if we wanted to call some `Goblin` function, such as `Enrage()`?


After all, this `Character*` is pointing at a `Goblin`, so we should be able to do that.  But if we try, we get a compilation error:


```c++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

//<c name="Character Class (Unchanged)">
//<l>class Character {/*...*/};
class Character {
public:
  Character(string Name) : mName{Name}{}
  string GetName(){ return mName; }

private:
  string mName;
};
//</c>

//<c name="Goblin Class (Unchanged)">
//<l>class Goblin : public Character {/*...*/};
class Goblin : public Character {
public:
  Goblin(string Name) : Character{Name}{}

  void Enrage(){
    cout << "Getting Angry!";
    Damage += 5;
  }

private:
  int Damage{10};
};
//</c>

void Act(Character* Enemy){
  cout << Enemy->GetName() << " Acting\n";
  Enemy->Enrage();//<e>
}

int main(){
  Goblin Bonker{"Bonker"};
  Act(&Bonker);
}
```


```c++
//<o>
error: no member named 'Enrage' in 'Character'
```


Perhaps this makes sense.  When we have a variable of type `Goblin`, and we call a function on that object that is defined in the `Character` class, this is safe.  By the rules of inheritance, all Goblins are also Characters


But, this is not true in the opposite direction.  Not all Characters are guaranteed to be Goblins.  Therefore, when we have a variable of type `Character*`, and we try to call a function that is defined in the `Goblin` class, we get a compilation error.


<Ad />


## Downcasting using `static_cast`


To address this, we need to rely on casting.  Specifically, we have a pointer to a `Character`, and we want to convert this to a pointer to a `Goblin` so we can access the goblin-specific functionality.


This scenario, where we are casting a pointer down the inheritance tree to a more specific subtype, is called _**downcasting**_.


The simplest form of this involves using the `static_cast` approach we introduced earlier in the chapter.


<LessonPromo url="intro-to-programming/casting" title="Static Casting" description="Explore the concept of static casting in C++, including examples and best practices for converting data types at compile time" />


In our `Act()` function, we can use `static_cast` to convert our `Character` pointer to a `Goblin` pointer.


```c++
void Act(Character* Enemy){
  Goblin* GoblinPtr{
    static_cast<Goblin*>(Enemy)//<h>
  };
}
```


We can then `Enrage()` using our `Goblin` pointer:


```c++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

//<c name="Character Class (Unchanged)">
//<l>class Character {/*...*/};
class Character {
public:
  Character(string Name) : mName{Name}{}
  string GetName(){ return mName; }

private:
  string mName;
};
//</c>

//<c name="Goblin Class (Unchanged)">
//<l>class Goblin : public Character {/*...*/};
class Goblin : public Character {
public:
  Goblin(string Name) : Character{Name}{}

  void Enrage(){
    cout << "Getting Angry!";
    Damage += 5;
  }

private:
  int Damage{10};
};
//</c>

void Act(Character* Enemy){
  cout << Enemy->GetName() << " Acting\n";
  static_cast<Goblin*>(Enemy)->Enrage();//<h>
}

int main(){
  Goblin Bonker{"Bonker"};
  Act(&Bonker);
}
```


```c++
//<o>
Bonker Acting
Getting Angry!
```


This may seem contrived - why not just use a `Goblin*` to store a pointer to a Goblin?


Remember, the point of run time polymorphism is that we want functions like `Act()` to work across a range of types.


If we updated our parameter to be a `Goblin*` instead of a `Character*`, we could call `Enrage()` directly, but we then couldn't call `Act()` with anything except goblins.


<Quiz title="Downcasting">


<Question>


Given the following code, how can we call the `Bark` function through the `MyDogPointer` variable?


```c++
class Animal {};

class Dog : public Animal {
public:
  void Bark(){}
};

int main(){
  Dog MyDog;
  Animal* MyDogPointer{&MyDog};
  // Call Bark using MyDogPointer
}
```


<Answer>


```c++
//<qa>
MyDogPointer->Bark();
```


<Feedback>


Remember, the type of `MyDogPointer` is `Animal*`, which does not have access to the `Bark()` function defined in `Dog`. Think about how you can access `Dog`-specific members from an `Animal*` pointer.


</Feedback>


</Answer>


<Answer isCorrect>


```c++
//<qa>
static_cast<Dog*>(MyDogPointer)->Bark();
```


<Feedback>


Correct! Using `static_cast<Dog*>` converts `MyDogPointer` from `Animal*` to `Dog*`, allowing access to the `Bark()` function specific to the `Dog` class.


</Feedback>


</Answer>


<Answer>


```c++
//<qa>
static_cast<Dog>(MyDogPointer).Bark()
```


<Feedback>


This will try to convert an `Animal*` to a `Dog`.


We can't do this using `static_cast`, but we could use it to convert an `Animal*` to a `Dog*`.


</Feedback>


</Answer>


</Question>


</Quiz>


<Ad />


## Downcasting Can Fail


Something important to note about downcasting is that it can fail in one of two ways.


### Compile Time Failure (Impossible Downcasts)


Below, we're trying to cast a `Goblin*` to a `Dragon*`.  This would never work - a `Goblin` cannot possibly be a `Dragon` as `Dragon` does not inherit from `Goblin`.


`static_cast` can detect this problem, and raise an error:


```c++
class Character {};

class Goblin : public Character {};

class Dragon : public Character {};

void Act(Goblin* Enemy){
  static_cast<Dragon*>(Enemy);//<e>
}
```


```c++
//<o>
error: 'static_cast': cannot convert
from 'Goblin *' to 'Dragon *'
```


This is one of the advantages of `static_cast` over C-style casting.  A C-style cast would let this error through, resulting in a bug:


```c++
void Act(Goblin* Enemy){
  (Dragon*)Enemy;//<w>
}
```


### Run Time Failure


The second, more common way a downcast will fail is when our conversion is possible in theory, but is simply not valid in this specific case.


Below, our `Act()` function attempts to cast a `Character*` to a `Goblin*`.  This is theoretically possible - `Character` is a base class for `Goblin`, so a `Character*` _**could**_ be pointing at a `Goblin`.


But in this specific case, it's not:


```c++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

//<c name="Character Class (Unchanged)">
//<l>class Character {/*...*/};
class Character {
public:
  Character(string Name) : mName{Name}{}
  string GetName(){ return mName; }

private:
  string mName;
};
//</c>

//<c name="Goblin Class (Unchanged)">
//<l>class Goblin : public Character {/*...*/};
class Goblin : public Character {
public:
  Goblin(string Name) : Character{Name}{}

  void Enrage(){
    cout << "Getting Angry!";
    Damage += 5;
  }

private:
  int Damage{10};
};
//</c>

void Act(Character* Enemy){
  cout << Enemy->GetName() << " Acting\n";
  static_cast<Goblin*>(Enemy)->Enrage();
}

int main(){
  Character Dragon{"Dave"};
  Act(&Dragon);
}
```


Because our `Act()` function assumes that the `Character*` is always pointing at a `Goblin`, we have a bug.  Our program will behave unpredictably, likely crashing.


For scenarios where an object may or may not be a specific subtype, we need to use _**dynamic casting**_.


## Static vs Dynamic Casting


In the first example, `static_cast` worked well because the `Character*` within `Act()` was always pointing to a `Goblin`.  Within our simple program, that was the only possibility.


But, this is not always going to be the case.  Often, the specific subtypes our functions are dealing with on each invocation will be different, and they will depend on runtime conditions such as user decisions.


A limitation of `static_cast` is it only checks if `Character` is a parent class of `Goblin`.  It does not check whether this _**specific**_ `Character` is a `Goblin`.


Because `static_cast` is done at compile time, it has no performance overhead.  This is great if we _**know**_ the downcast will work, however, in many scenarios, we can't be sure.


For those scenarios, we have _**dynamic casting**_.


<Aside>


### Polymorphic Types


To use dynamic casting, our type must be _**polymorphic**_.  A polymorphic type is a type with at least one virtual function.


If our type doesn't require any virtual functions, but we still want to use `dynamic_cast` with it, by convention we make the destructor virtual:


```c++
class Character {
public:
  virtual ~Character() = default;//<h>
};
```


</Aside>


## Downcasting using `dynamic_cast`


The way we invoke `dynamic_cast` follows the same pattern as `static_cast`:


```c++
void Handle(Character* Object){
  Goblin* GoblinPointer{
    dynamic_cast<Goblin*>(Object)
  };
};
```


The key difference is that `dynamic_cast` performs an additional run-time check to determine whether the pointer actually is pointing to the thing we're trying to cast it to.


In this case, it's checking whether the `Object` pointer really is pointing at a `Goblin`.


If the pointer was _**not**_ pointing at the type we specified, `dynamic_cast` returns a `nullptr`,


This allows us to react to cast failures because we can detect null pointers using an `if` statement in the usual way:


```c++
void Handle(Character* Object){
  Goblin* GoblinPointer{
    dynamic_cast<Goblin*>(Object)
  };

  if (GoblinPointer) {//<h>
    cout << "That was a Goblin\n";//<h>
  } else {//<h>
    cout << "That was not a Goblin\n";//<h>
  }//<h>
};
```


Below, we show this in action.  We first pass `Handle()` a `Goblin`, and then a basic `Character`:


```c++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Character {
public:
  virtual ~Character() = default;
};

class Goblin : public Character { };

void Handle(Character* Object){
  Goblin* GoblinPointer{
    dynamic_cast<Goblin*>(Object)
  };

  if (GoblinPointer) {
    cout << "That was a Goblin\n";
  } else {
    cout << "That was not a Goblin\n";
  }
};

int main(){
  Goblin Enemy;
  Handle(&Enemy);

  Character Player;
  Handle(&Player);
}
```


```c++
//<o>
That was a Goblin
That was not a Goblin
```


## A Practical Example


Let's go through a slightly more complex example.  Below, we have a polymorphic combat system, very similar to what we created in the previous lesson.


Two `Character` objects are passed to `Battle()` as pointers, and they both then `Act()` upon each other:


```c++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Character {
public:
  Character(string Name) : mName{Name}{}
  string GetName(){ return mName; }

  void TakeDamage(int Damage){
    cout << mName << " Taking Damage\n";
    mHealth -= Damage;
  }

  virtual void Act(Character* Target){
    Target->TakeDamage(50);
  }

protected:
  string mName;
  int mHealth{150};
};

void Battle(Character* A, Character* B){
  B->Act(A);
  A->Act(B);
}

int main(){
  Character Player{"Player"};

  Character EnemyGoblin{"Goblin"};
  Battle(&Player, &EnemyGoblin);
  cout << '\n';

  Character EnemyVampire{"Vampire"};
  Battle(&Player, &EnemyVampire);
}
```


```c++
//<o>
Player Taking Damage
Goblin Taking Damage

Player Taking Damage
Vampire Taking Damage
```


Let's add some subclasses we can use.  Below, our vampire enemy now has its own dedicated `Vampire` class.  It has also developed a weakness to wooden stakes, represented by the vampire-specific `Stake()` function.


Our player has become a `VampireHunter` which, for now, just behaves in the same way as the basic `Character`:


```c++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

//<c name="Character Class (Unchanged)">
//<l>class Character {/*...*/};
class Character {
public:
  Character(string Name) : mName{Name}{}
  string GetName(){ return mName; }

  void TakeDamage(int Damage){
    cout << mName << " Taking Damage\n";
    mHealth -= Damage;
  }

  virtual void Act(Character* Target){
    Target->TakeDamage(50);
  }

protected:
  string mName;
  int mHealth{150};
};
//</c>

//<c name="Battle Function (Unchanged)">
//<l>void Battle(Character* A, Character* B){/*...*/};
void Battle(Character* A, Character* B){
  B->Act(A);
  A->Act(B);
}
//</c>

class Vampire : public Character {
public:
  Vampire(string Name) : Character{Name}{}

  void Stake(){
    cout << mName << " Getting Staked\n";
    mHealth = 0;
  }
};

class VampireHunter : public Character {
public:
  VampireHunter(string Name) : Character{Name}{}
};

int main(){
  VampireHunter Player{"Player"};//<h>

  Character EnemyGoblin{"Goblin"};
  Battle(&Player, &EnemyGoblin);
  cout << '\n';

  Vampire EnemyVampire{"Vampire"};//<h>
  Battle(&Player, &EnemyVampire);
}
```


So far, not much has changed - combat is proceeding as before:


```c++
//<o>
Player Taking Damage
Goblin Taking Damage

Player Taking Damage
Vampire Taking Damage
```


We'd like to update our `VampireHunter` with the ability to `Stake()` vampire enemies.  But we still need to fight non-vampires, too.


So, using what we've learned, we can override the `Act()` function and use `dynamic_cast` to determine whether or not we're fighting a `Vampire`.


If we are, we `Stake()` them, otherwise, we fall back to the default `Character` action:


```c++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

//<c name="Character Class (Unchanged)">
//<l>class Character {/*...*/};
class Character {
public:
  Character(string Name) : mName{Name}{}
  string GetName(){ return mName; }

  void TakeDamage(int Damage){
    cout << mName << " Taking Damage\n";
    mHealth -= Damage;
  }

  virtual void Act(Character* Target){
    Target->TakeDamage(50);
  }

protected:
  string mName;
  int mHealth{150};
};
//</c>

//<c name="Battle Function (Unchanged)">
//<l>void Battle(Character* A, Character* B){/*...*/};
void Battle(Character* A, Character* B){
  B->Act(A);
  A->Act(B);
}
//</c>

//<c name="Vampire Class (Unchanged)">
//<l>class Vampire : public Character {/*...*/};
class Vampire : public Character {
public:
  Vampire(string Name) : Character{Name}{}

  void Stake(){
    cout << mName << " Getting Staked\n";
    mHealth = 0;
  }
};
//</c>

class VampireHunter : public Character {
public:
  VampireHunter(string Name) : Character{Name}{}

  void Act(Character* Target) override{//<h>
    Vampire* VampirePtr{//<h>
      dynamic_cast<Vampire*>(Target)};//<h>

    if (VampirePtr) {
      VampirePtr->Stake();
    } else {
      Character::Act(Target);
    }
  }
};

//<c name="main Function (Unchanged)">
//<l>int main(){/*...*/};
int main(){
  VampireHunter Player{"Player"};

  Character EnemyGoblin{"Goblin"};
  Battle(&Player, &EnemyGoblin);
  cout << '\n';

  Vampire EnemyVampire{"Vampire"};
  Battle(&Player, &EnemyVampire);
}
//</c>
```


```c++
//<o>
Player Taking Damage
Goblin Taking Damage

Player Taking Damage
Vampire Getting Staked
```


It's worth reflecting that we didn't need to change our combat system (the contrived `Battle` function, and the `Character` class it uses) at any point in this process.


Our combat system doesn't know anything about vampires and vampire hunting - all of that is encapsulated away in our vampiric types.


Because of the power of polymorphism, our combat system gets richer and more dynamic, without its code needing to get more complex, or even change at all.


## Summary

- **Understanding Downcasting:** We learned that downcasting is a way to convert a pointer or reference from a base class to a derived class in the inheritance hierarchy.
- **`static_cast`** **for Downcasting:** We explored the use of `static_cast` for downcasting, which is suitable when we're certain about the type of the object at compile time. This method is efficient but lacks runtime type checking.
- **`dynamic_cast`** **for Safe Downcasting:** We discussed `dynamic_cast`, which is used when the type of the object is not known until runtime. This method provides a safe way to perform downcasting by returning a `nullptr` if the cast is not possible.
- **Practical Application in Polymorphic Systems:** Through examples involving characters in a combat system, we illustrated how downcasting can enrich the functionality of polymorphic systems without complicating the underlying code structure.

dynamic_cast conversion

static_cast conversion

C++ Tutorial: Upcasting and Downcasting

Upcasting and Downcasting in C++

{CPP}Explore C++ downcasting, covering everything from basic concepts to practical use cases

{CPP}C++ Downcasting Explained: From Basics to Application

Compile Time Failure (Impossible Downcasts)

Downcasting

Understanding the Basics

Practical Applications

Common Mistakes

Next Steps

Additional Resources

Assessment Preparation

Intro to C++ Programming