Getting our machines set up for C++ development, and introducing the fundamental building blocks of programming - variables.

Getting our computer set up so we can create and build C++ programs. Then, creating our very first application

Setting up a C++ Development Environment

An introduction to the building blocks of our software - objects, and the variables that can be associated with them.

Objects, Variables and Types

Creating variables to store and update the data that describes our objects.  We also introduce comments, allowing us to describe our code in plain language.

Creating Variables

An introduction to the different types of numbers in C++, and how we can do basic math operations on them.

Numbers

An overview of the fundamental true or false data type, how we can create them, and how we can combine them.

Booleans - `true` and `false` values

Explore how C++ programs store and manage numbers in computer memory, including integer and floating-point types, memory allocation, and overflow handling.

Types and Literals

Creating a tiny program using numbers and booleans, then adding some breakpoints so we can step through our code in a debugger.

Introduction to Debugging

Types and Variables

Discover how we can package our code into reusable functions that we can easily call.  Then, learn how we can use conditionals and loops to control the flow of our program.

An introduction to functions - reusable blocks of code that we can use to break our application into smaller pieces.

Creating and Calling Functions

An introduction to how our function calls create a call stack, and how we can navigate it in a debugger.

The Call Stack and Debugging Functions

Use booleans and if statements to make our functions and programs more dynamic, choosing different execution paths.

Conditional Logic

Learn an alternative way to write conditionals, which is often used when we want to take different paths based on a specific value

Switch Statements

Allow our functions to communicate with their caller by returning values when they complete

Function `return` Statements

Going into more depth on what is happening when a variable is used as a different type

Implicit Conversions and Narrowing Casts

Making our functions more useful and dynamic by providing them with additional values to use in their execution

Function Arguments and Parameters

Learn more about how and when we can access variables, by understanding the importance of the scope in which they exist.

Scope

Understand what function prototypes are, and learn how we can use them to let us order our code any way we want.

Forward Declarations

Learn how we can use loops to iterate over a block of code, executing it as many times as needed.

Loops

Learn how we can use the modulus operator to get the remainder of integer division, and some common use cases.

The Modulus Operator (`%`)

Put everything we've learned in this chapter to the test by creating a C++ version of the Fizz Buzz game.

Fizz Buzz

Learn how the `&&` and `||` operators are optimized with short-circuit evaluation, only evaluating expressions when necessary

Short-circuit Evaluation

Functions, Conditionals and Loops

Classes and structs are the fundamental feature of object oriented programming.  In this chapter, we will see how we can set them up, and how we can use them to create the custom types our program needs.

Learn how to define, instantiate, and utilize classes, understanding how they form the backbone of object-oriented programming.

Abstraction and Classes

A guide to encapsulation, class invariants, and controlling data access with `public` and `private` specifiers.

Encapsulation and Access Specifiers

Learn about special functions we can add to our classes, control how our objects get created and destroyed.

Constructors and Destructors

Discover the role of structs, how they differ from classes, and how to initialize them without requiring a constructor.

Structs and Aggregate Initialization

This lesson introduces operator overloading, a fundamental concept to create more intuitive and readable code by customizing operators for user-defined types

Operator Overloading

This lesson introduces Structured Binding, a handy tool for unpacking simple data structures

Structured Binding

Classes and Structs

See how we can use inheritance to organise our classes into a hierarchy, unlocking a massive range of possibilities for building more complex software

In this lesson, we explore C++ inheritance, guiding you through creating and managing class hierarchies to streamline your code

Inheritance

Learn about `protected` class members in C++, including how and when to use them in your code, especially in the context of inheritance and class design

Protected Class Members

This lesson introduces Member Initializer Lists, focusing on their advantages for performance and readability, and how to use them effectively

Member Initializer Lists

This lesson provides an in-depth exploration of using inherited methods and variables in C++, covering constructor calls, variable modification, and function shadowing

Working with Inherited Members

An introduction to working with memory, and how we represent memory locations using references and pointers

This lesson introduces references, explaining how they work, their benefits, and their role in performance and data manipulation

References

This lesson provides a thorough introduction to pointers in C++, covering their definition, usage, and the distinction between pointers and references

Pointers

Learn about the `this` pointer in C++ programming, focusing on its application in identifying callers, chaining functions, and overloading operators.

The `this` Pointer

Learn about an important consideration when returning pointers and references from functions

Dangling Pointers and References

Memory, References and Pointers

An introduction to polymorphism - the key tool that let us build more complex programs whilst keeping our code simple.

This lesson provides an in-depth look at function overloading in C++, covering its importance, implementation, and best practices

Function Overloading

Explore the concept of static casting in C++, including examples and best practices for converting data types at compile time

Static Casting

This lesson provides an introduction to virtual functions and overrides, focusing on their role in enabling runtime polymorphism

Virtual Functions and Overrides

Get to grips with downcasting in C++, including static and dynamic casts. This lesson provides clear explanations and practical examples for beginners

Downcasting

Polymorphism

Go deeper on what is happening when we build our software.  Learn how we can use the preprocessor to automatically modify our source code before it is compiled, and how the linker connects our program together.

Explore the essential concepts of C++ preprocessing, from understanding directives to implementing macros

Preprocessor Definitions

Discover how the `#include` directive helps us include library features and split our project across multiple files.

The `#include` Directive

Explore how header files and linkers streamline C++ programming, learning to organize and link our code effectively

Header Files

The Preprocessor and the Linker

Discover additional methods and techniques to keep our data and code organised.

Learn the essentials of using namespaces to organize your code and handle large projects with ease

Namespaces

Learn about Enums and how they offer an efficient way to handle predefined values in your code

Enums

This lesson introduces the `using` keyword in C++, focusing on namespaces, enums, and type aliasing

The `using` Keyword

Namespaces and Enums

Learn how to store collections of objects, and take control of how memory is managed

Explore the fundamentals of dynamic arrays with an introduction to `std::vector`

Dynamic Arrays using `std::vector`

Learn how to manage dynamic memory using unique pointers and the concept of memory ownership

Memory Ownership and Smart Pointers

Explore advanced techniques for managing object copying and resource allocation

Copy Constructors and Operators

Learn the techniques and pitfalls of manual memory management in C++

Managing Memory Manually

Arrays and Dynamic Memory

Techniques to simplify our code, making it easier to understand and maintain

This lesson covers how we can ask the compiler to infer what types we are using through the `auto` keyword

Automatic Type Deduction using `auto`

Learn the intricacies of using `const` and how to apply it in different contexts

Constants and `const`-Correctness

This lesson provides an overview of effective commenting strategies, including Javadoc style commenting for automated documentation

Effective Comments and Javadoc

This lesson introduces the concept of Style Guides and ClangFormat, focusing on how to achieve consistency in our code

Style Guides and Automatic Code Formatting

An introduction to static analysis tools, and how they can help beginners learn faster and improve code quality

Static Analysis

Explore the fundamentals of attributes, including `[[nodiscard]]`, `[[likely]]`, and `[[deprecated]]`

Attributes

Clean Code

A collection of lessons covering a variety of topics worth learning as a beginner

This lesson covers the basics of using randomness, with practical applications

Random Number Generation

Learn the basics of the chrono library and discover how to effectively manage durations, clocks, and time points

Dates, Times and Durations

A detailed guide to string formatting using C++20's `std::format()`, and C++23's `std::print()`

String Interpolation

Learn how to overload the `<<` operator, so our custom types can stream information directly to the console using `std::cout`

Overloading the `<<` Operator

This lesson introduces system calls, and how to use them to clear the terminal

System Calls and Terminal Management

This lesson introduces the fundamentals of capturing user input, using `std::cin` and `std::getline()`

User Input in the Terminal

Unravel the fundamentals of bitwise operators and bit flags in this practical lesson

Bitwise Operators and Bit Flags

Odds and Ends

This course is designed for beginners. We'll take you from the fundamentals and lay a solid foundation for creating real-world programs and learning more advanced concepts.

Become a software engineer with C++.  Starting from the basics, we guide you step by step along the way

This course teaches the fundamentals of C++ while instilling habits used by real-world developers. You'll gain practical experience with concepts that are the foundation of all modern programming.

No previous programming experience is needed - we start from the basics.

Start your Journey

We explain every line of code we're using, so you understand exactly what is happening.

Understand Every Line of Code

Everything we create is organised and implemented using modern, professional practices.

Use Professional Best Practices

We don't just explain what we're doing, but also why. This builds transferrable skills, so you can take what you've learnt and apply them to your own projects.

Focus on Transferrable Skills

No paywalls, no ads - the course is completely free with unlimited access

Free and Unrestricted Access

We break complex concepts into manageable steps, making even advanced topics feel approachable.

Step-by-Step Learning

What You'll Learn

Comprehensive course covering advanced concepts, and how to use them on large-scale projects.

Professional C++

If you're already familiar with the basics of C++ and object oriented programming, you may want to skip to the advanced course.  It starts with a quick summary of everything we cover here.

Already Familiar with Programming?

Intro to C++ Programming

So far, we've been using a simple terminal prompt to view the output of our program.  In the next course, we'll switch to rendering graphics using SDL.


But, there are some useful tricks we have that can help us make the most of our terminal for building quick programs.


We've seen how we can stream numbers and strings to the terminal using the `<<` operator:


```c++
std::cout << "Hello World " << 42;
```


We'd like to be able to do something similar with our custom objects.  For example:


```c++
#include <iostream>

//<c label="Character Class">
//<l>class Character {/*...*/}
class Character {
  std::string Name { "Goblin Warrior" };
  int Level { 15 };
  int MaxHealth { 150 };
  int Health { 90 };
};
//</c>

int main() {
  Character Enemy;
  std::cout << Enemy;//<e>
}
```


To do this, we need to overload the `<<` operator to be usable with `std::cout` as the left operand, and `Character` as the right operand.


Inspecting `std::cout` in our IDE, or checking the documentation, would reveal that is an instance of the `std::ostream` type, which is an abbreviation of _**output stream**_.


Because `std::cout` is the left operand, the `std::ostream` reference needs to be the first argument for our overload, whilst the `Character&` is the second argument.  So, our overload would look like this:


```c++
void operator<<(
  std::ostream& Stream,
  const Character& Enemy
) {
  Stream << "Hello World";
}
```


With that, our code will now compile, with "Hello World" being streamed to the terminal:


```c++
#include <iostream>

//<c label="Character Class">
//<l>class Character {/*...*/}
class Character {
  std::string Name{"Goblin Warrior"};
  int Level{15};
  int MaxHealth{150};
  int Health{90};
};
//</c>

//<c label="Operator Overload">
//<l>void operator<<(std::ostream&, const Character&)
void operator<<(
  std::ostream& Stream,
  const Character& Enemy
) {
  Stream << "Hello World";
}
//</c>

int main() {
  Character Enemy;
  std::cout << Enemy;
}
```


```c++
//<o>
Hello World
```


<Aside>


### Overloading `<<` as a Member Function


It's tempting to define the `<<` overload as a member function on the `Character` class, to keep everything encapsulated.  However, as a member function, it would need to be defined by the type of the _**left**_ operand.  In this case, that is the `std::ostream` class, not our `Character` class.


The `std::ostream` class is not our code, so extending it is quite difficult.  As such, we define overloads as free functions instead.  In a large project, these functions can be defined within the same files we use for the right operand's type - eg `Character.h` - so our code is still kept organized.


</Aside>


<Ad />


## Chaining `<<` Operators


We want to make two updates to make our overload more useful.  Firstly, we want to be able to chain `<<` operators, just like we can when streaming other types.  For example, we want to be able to do things like this:


```c++
std::cout << MyCharacter << '\n';
```


To enable this, we need to ensure our overload function returns a reference to the stream we're writing to.  So, we update the return type of our overload, and `return` the stream that was used as the left operand:


```c++
std::ostream& operator<<(//<h>
  std::ostream& Stream,
  const Character& Enemy
) {
  Stream << "Hello World";
  return Stream;//<h>
}
```


With that, we can now chain additional `<<` operators after streaming a `Character` object:


```c++
#include <iostream>

//<c label="Character Class">
//<l>class Character {/*...*/}
class Character {
  std::string Name{"Goblin Warrior"};
  int Level{15};
  int MaxHealth{150};
  int Health{90};
};
//</c>

//<c label="Operator Overload">
//<l>std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream&, const Character&)
std::ostream& operator<<(
  std::ostream& Stream,
  const Character& Enemy
) {
  Stream << "Hello World";
  return Stream;
}
//</c>

int main() {
  Character Enemy;
  std::cout << Enemy << "!!!";//<h>
}
```


```c++
//<o>
Hello World!!!
```


<Ad />


## Serializing Objects


Secondly, we want our operator to stream some meaningful text, rather rather than "Hello World".  Specifically, we want it to stream some information about the `Character` object provided as the right operand.


Representing the state of objects as a simple string is sometimes referred to as **serialization**.  We'll see more of this in the next course, as it unlocks features like saving files to the user's hard drive and communicating over the internet, enabling programs like multiplayer games.


For now, we can just create a simple function that generates a string that stores some info about our object.  We'll use this format:


```c++
//<o>
[Level] Name (Health / MaxHealth)
```


One way of accomplishing this is to add a public function that uses the `std::format()` techniques we covered in the previous lesson:


```c++
class Character {
public:
  std::string Serialize() const {//<h>
    return std::format(//<h>
      "[Level {}] {} ({} / {})",//<h>
      Level, Name, Health, MaxHealth);//<h>
  }//<h>
private:
  std::string Name { "Goblin Warrior" };
  int Level { 15 };
  int MaxHealth { 150 };
  int Health { 90 };
};
```


Finally, let's update our overload to use this function:


```c++
std::ostream& operator<<(
  std::ostream& Stream,
  const Character& Enemy
) {
  Stream << Enemy.Serialize();//<h>
  return Stream;
}
```


With that, everything is in place.  Developers can now easily stream information about our `Character` objects to `std::cout` just as easily as they can stream integers and strings:


```c++
#include <iostream>

//<c label="Character Class">
//<l>class Character {/*...*/}
class Character {
 public:
  std::string Serialize() const {
    return std::format(
      "[Level {}] {} ({} / {})",
      Level, Name, Health, MaxHealth);
  }

 private:
  std::string Name{"Goblin Warrior"};
  int Level{15};
  int MaxHealth{150};
  int Health{90};
};
//</c>

//<c label="Operator Overload">
//<l>void operator<<(std::ostream&, const Character&)
std::ostream& operator<<(
  std::ostream& Stream,
  const Character& Enemy
) {
  Stream << Enemy.Serialize();
  return Stream;
}
//</c>

int main() {
  Character Enemy;
  std::cout << Enemy;
}
```


```c++
//<o>
[Level 15] Goblin Warrior (90 / 150)
```


## Summary


In this lesson, we explored how to overload the **`<<`** operator in C++, enabling us to stream custom objects directly to the console using `std::cout`. Through practical examples, we demonstrated chaining operators and serializing objects for more effective output.  Key topics included:

- Understanding the concept and implementation of overloading the `<<` operator for user-defined types.
- Learning how to make the overloaded operator compatible with `std::cout` by using `std::ostream&` and a reference to our custom type as parameters.
- Exploring the technique of chaining `<<` operators by returning a reference to the stream.
- An introduction to object serialization, through implementing a `Serialize` method in our class.

<Preview>


### System Calls and Terminal Management


So far, our programs have been restricted to outputting a vertical stream of text.  In the next lesson, we'll begin to introduce the concept of an _**application loop**_.


This involves our program clearing the screen and regenerating new output on each iteration, which is the basis for much richer interactions.


</Preview>

Overloading the `<<` Operator for Your Own Classes

Operator Overloading in C++

C++ Operator Overloading with Examples

Operator Overloading in C++ with Examples

C++ Operator Overloading (With Examples)

{CPP}Step-by-step guide to overloading the << operator in C++. Perfect for beginners

Overloading the `<<` Operator

Understanding the Basics

Practical Applications

Common Mistakes

Next Steps

Additional Resources

Assessment Preparation

Intro to C++ Programming

Overloading the << Operator

Understanding the Basics

Practical Applications

Common Mistakes

Next Steps

Additional Resources

Assessment Preparation

Overloading the `<<` Operator